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The gauss, symbol G (sometimes Gs), is a unit of measurement of magnetic induction, also known as magnetic flux density. The unit is part of the Gaussian system of units, which inherited it from the older CGS-EMU system. It was named after the German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1936. One gauss is defined as one maxwell per square centimetre.

As the cgs system has been superseded by the International System of Units (SI), the use of the gauss has been deprecated by the standards bodies, but is still regularly used in various subfields of science. The SI unit for magnetic flux density is the tesla (symbol T),^[1] which corresponds to 10,000gauss.

Name, symbol, and metric prefixes[edit]

Gaussview

Albeit not a component of the International System of Units, the usage of the gauss generally follows the rules for SI units. Since the name is derived from a person's name, its symbol is the uppercase letter G. When the unit is spelled out, it is written in lowercase ('gauss'), unless it begins a sentence.^{[2]:147–148} The gauss may be combined with metric prefixes,^[3]:128 such as in milligauss, mG (or mGs).

Unit conversions[edit]

The gauss is the unit of magnetic flux density B in the system of Gaussian units and is equal to Mx/cm² or g/Bi/s², while the oersted is the unit of H-field. One tesla (T) corresponds to 10⁴ gauss, and one ampere (A) per metre corresponds to 4π × 10⁻³ oersted.

The units for magnetic flux Φ, which is the integral of magnetic B-field over an area, are the weber (Wb) in the SI and the maxwell (Mx) in the CGS-Gaussian system. The conversion factor is 10⁸, since flux is the integral of field over an area, area having the units of the square of distance, thus 10⁴ (magnetic field conversion factor) times the square of 10² (linear distance conversion factor, i.e., centimetres per metre). 10⁸ = 10⁴ × (10²)².

Typical values[edit]

• 10⁻⁹–10⁻⁸ G – the magnetic field of the human brain
• 10⁻⁶–10⁻³ G – the magnetic field of Galactic molecular clouds. Typical magnetic field strengths within the interstellar medium of the Milky Way are ∼5 μGs.
• 0.25–0.60 G – the Earth's magnetic field at its surface
• 25 G – the Earth's magnetic field in its core^[4]
• 50 G – a typical refrigerator magnet
• 100 G – an ironmagnet
• 1500 G – within a sun spot^[5]
• 10000 to 13000 G – remanence of a neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnet^[6]
• 16000 to 22000 G – saturation of high permeability iron alloys used in transformers^[7]
• 3000–70000 G – a medical magnetic resonance imaging machine
• 10¹²–10¹³ G – the surface of a neutron star^[8]
• 4 × 10¹³ G – the quantum electrodynamic threshold
• 10¹⁴ G – the magnetic field of SGR J1745-2900, orbiting the supermassive black hole Sgr A* in the center of the Milky Way.
• 10¹⁵ G – the magnetic field of some newly created magnetars^[9]
• 10¹⁷ G – the upper limit to neutron star magnetism^[9]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^c_cgs = 2.99792458×10¹⁰ is the dimensionless magnitude of the speed of light when expressed in cgs units.

References[edit]

1. ^NIST Special Publication 1038, Section 4.3.1
2. ^International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2019-05-20), SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI)(PDF) (9th ed.), ISBN978-92-822-2272-0
3. ^International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI)(PDF) (8th ed.), ISBN92-822-2213-6, archived(PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14
4. ^Buffett, Bruce A. (2010), 'Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth’s internal magnetic field', Nature, volume 468, pages 952–954, doi:10.1038/nature09643
5. ^Hoadley, Rick. 'How strong are magnets?'. www.coolmagnetman.com. Retrieved 2017-01-26.
6. ^Pyrhönen, Juha; Jokinen, Tapani; Hrabovcová, Valéria (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines. John Wiley and Sons. p. 232. ISBN0-470-69516-1.
7. ^Laughton, Michael A.; Warne, Douglas F., eds. (2003). '8'. Electrical Engineer's Reference Book (Sixteenth ed.). Newnes. ISBN0-7506-4637-3.
8. ^'How strong are magnets?'. Experiments with magnets and our surroundings. Magcraft. Retrieved 2007-12-14.
9. ^ ^abDuncan, Robert C. (March 2003). 'Magnetars, Soft Gamma Repeaters and Very Strong Magnetic Fields'. University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on 2007-06-11. Retrieved 2007-05-23.

On this page we look at the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT), Gauss's algorithm to solve simultaneous linear congruences, a simpler method to solve congruences for small moduli, and an application of the theorem to break the RSA algorithm when someone sends the same encrypted message to three different recipients usingthe same exponent of e=3.

The Chinese Remainder Theorem

Note that all the theorem says is that there is a unique solution. It doesn't actually say how to solve it. This is usually done using Gauss's algorithm.There is also a variant of the CRT used to speed up the calculations in the RSA algorithm.

The name 'Chinese' comes from an old Chinese puzzle allegedly posed by Sun Tsu Suan-Ching in 4 AD:

There are certain things whose number is unknown. Repeatedly divided by 3, the remainder is 2; by 5 the remainder is 3; and by 7 the remainder is 2. What will be the number?

In modern number theory, we would write that as a problem to solve the simultaneous congruences

The Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) tells us that since 3, 5 and 7 are coprime in pairs then there is a unique solutionmodulo 3 x 5 x 7 = 105. The solution is x = 23. You can check that by noting that the relations

are all satisfied for this value of x.

Gauss's algorithm

Algorithm. Let N=n1n2...nr then

where Ni = N/ni and di ≡ Ni-1 (mod ni).

The latter modular inverse di is easily calculated by the extended Euclidean algorithm.You can also use the bd_modinv utility in ourModular Arithmetic Freeware download.

Example

For the original 'Chinese' problem above we have

Now N1 = N/n1 = 35 and so d1 = 35-1 (mod 3) = 2,
N2 = N/n2 = 21 and so d2 = 21-1 (mod 5) = 1, and
N3 = N/n3 = 15 and so d3 = 15-1 (mod 7) = 1. Hence

Another example

Using Gauss's algorithm,

so a solution is x = 58.Note that this is 'a' solution. Any integer that satisfies 58 + 60k for any integer k is also a solution, but the method gives you the unique solution in the range 0 ≤ x < n1n2n3.

A simpler method

For congruences with small moduli there is a simpler method (useful in exams!).To solve the previous problem, write out the numbers x ≡ 3 (mod 5) until you find a number congruent to 2 (mod 4),then increase that number by multiples of 5 x 4 until you find number congruent to 1 (mod 3).

We find it easier to start with the largest modulus and work downwards.

To solve the original Chinese problem:

Cracking RSA

Alice sends the same message m encrypted using the RSA algorithm to three recipients with different moduli n1,n2,n3 all coprime to each other but using the same exponent e=3. Eve recovers the three ciphertext values c1,c2,c3 and knows the public keys (n,e=3) of all the recipients. Can Eve recover the message without factoring the moduli?

Yes. Eve uses Gauss's algorithm above to find a solution x, in the range 0 ≤ x < n1n2n3,to the three simultaneous congruences

We know from the Chinese Remainder Theorem that m3 < n1n2n3, so it follows that x = m3 and so m can be recovered by simplycomputing the integer cube root of x. Note that the cube root does not involve any modular arithmetic and so is straightforward to compute (well, as straightforward as computing any cube root is).

Example

There are three recipients with public keys (87,3), (115,3) and (187,3).That is, we have e=3 and

(although the factorisation would neither be public nor feasibly computable for large n's used in practice)

Alice encrypts the message m=10 using RSA to all three, as follows,

and these three ciphertext values c1, c2, c3 are intercepted by Eve,who also knows the public values (ni, e).She then uses Gauss's algorithm as follows

So m is the cube root of 1000; that is, m = 10, as required.Eve did not need to factor the moduli to find the message.

To compute the modular inverses, we used the bd_modinv function in our Modular Arithmetic Freeware package (new updated version released 11-11-11)

Comment

In practice with RSA we would be looking at much larger moduli in the order of 1000 or 2000 bits (i.e. numbers about 300 to 600 decimal digits long, probably too big for your pocket calculator), but the same principles apply.You would need to use a computer package that does large integer arithmetic (like our free BigDigits software - see below).It is most likely that any three moduli in practice will be coprime, so the method is likely to be successful.

Example with larger modulus

Gauss View 6 Cracked Download

Here is an example to recover a message which has been encrypted using RSA to three recipientsusing 512-bit moduli and the common exponent 3 with no random padding. We use our BigDigits library to do the arithmetic. We added a cuberoot function in the latest version 2.3 specifically to solve this typeof problem.

The example code is in t_bdRsaCrack.c (included in the latest BigDigits distribution).The output of running this code is here. Thanks to Arone Prem Kumar Arokiasami for prompting us to do this.

This shows how easy it is to crack RSA even for realistic key sizes if the sender is careless.

How to prevent this type of attack

1. Use a larger exponent, like 65537 (0x10001). This makes it harder to use the above method, but it is much better to...
2. Add some random bits to the message - at least 64 bits worth. Make sure every message ever encrypted always has different random bytes added. This is known as salting the message and will prevent many otherattacks, too. Obviously, the recipient needs to know how to remove the random bytes after decrypting the message.

For more on weaknesses in RSA and how to combat them, see our RSA algorithm page.

10 Crack Commandments Lyrics

References

• Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone,Handbook of Applied Cryptography,CRC Press LLC, 1997. The complete book is available on-line.
• M381 Mathematics and Computing: A Third Level Course,Number Theory Handbook,The Open University, 1996.

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Gauss 10 Cracker

This page first published 23 October 2010 and last updated 5 December 2019